path: root/libsolidity/codegen/Compiler.cpp

/*
    This file is part of cpp-ethereum.

    cpp-ethereum is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
    it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
    the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
    (at your option) any later version.

    cpp-ethereum is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
    but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
    MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
    GNU General Public License for more details.

    You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
    along with cpp-ethereum.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
*/
/**
 * @author Christian <c@ethdev.com>
 * @date 2014
 * Solidity compiler.
 */

#include <libsolidity/codegen/Compiler.h>
#include <algorithm>
#include <boost/range/adaptor/reversed.hpp>
#include <libevmasm/Instruction.h>
#include <libevmasm/Assembly.h>
#include <libevmasm/GasMeter.h>
#include <libsolidity/inlineasm/AsmCodeGen.h>
#include <libsolidity/ast/AST.h>
#include <libsolidity/codegen/ExpressionCompiler.h>
#include <libsolidity/codegen/CompilerUtils.h>
using namespace std;
using namespace dev;
using namespace dev::solidity;

/**
 * Simple helper class to ensure that the stack height is the same at certain places in the code.
 */
class StackHeightChecker
{
public:
    StackHeightChecker(CompilerContext const& _context):
        m_context(_context), stackHeight(m_context.stackHeight()) {}
    void check() { solAssert(m_context.stackHeight() == stackHeight, "I sense a disturbance in the stack."); }
private:
    CompilerContext const& m_context;
    unsigned stackHeight;
};

void Compiler::compileContract(
    ContractDefinition const& _contract,
    std::map<const ContractDefinition*, eth::Assembly const*> const& _contracts
)
{
    m_context = CompilerContext();
    {
        CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetterRunTime(m_context, _contract);
        initializeContext(_contract, _contracts);
        appendFunctionSelector(_contract);
        appendFunctionsWithoutCode();
    }

    // Swap the runtime context with the creation-time context
    swap(m_context, m_runtimeContext);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetterCreationTime(m_context, _contract);
    initializeContext(_contract, _contracts);
    packIntoContractCreator(_contract, m_runtimeContext);
    if (m_optimize)
        m_context.optimise(m_optimizeRuns);

    if (_contract.isLibrary())
    {
        solAssert(m_runtimeSub != size_t(-1), "");
        m_context.injectVersionStampIntoSub(m_runtimeSub);
    }
}

void Compiler::compileClone(
    ContractDefinition const& _contract,
    map<ContractDefinition const*, eth::Assembly const*> const& _contracts
)
{
    m_context = CompilerContext(); // clear it just in case
    initializeContext(_contract, _contracts);

    appendInitAndConstructorCode(_contract);

    //@todo determine largest return size of all runtime functions
    eth::AssemblyItem runtimeSub = m_context.addSubroutine(cloneRuntime());
    solAssert(runtimeSub.data() < numeric_limits<size_t>::max(), "");
    m_runtimeSub = size_t(runtimeSub.data());

    // stack contains sub size
    m_context << Instruction::DUP1 << runtimeSub << u256(0) << Instruction::CODECOPY;
    m_context << u256(0) << Instruction::RETURN;

    appendFunctionsWithoutCode();

    if (m_optimize)
        m_context.optimise(m_optimizeRuns);
}

eth::AssemblyItem Compiler::functionEntryLabel(FunctionDefinition const& _function) const
{
    return m_runtimeContext.functionEntryLabelIfExists(_function);
}

void Compiler::initializeContext(
    ContractDefinition const& _contract,
    map<ContractDefinition const*, eth::Assembly const*> const& _compiledContracts
)
{
    m_context.setCompiledContracts(_compiledContracts);
    m_context.setInheritanceHierarchy(_contract.annotation().linearizedBaseContracts);
    CompilerUtils(m_context).initialiseFreeMemoryPointer();
    registerStateVariables(_contract);
    m_context.resetVisitedNodes(&_contract);
}

void Compiler::appendInitAndConstructorCode(ContractDefinition const& _contract)
{
    // Determine the arguments that are used for the base constructors.
    std::vector<ContractDefinition const*> const& bases = _contract.annotation().linearizedBaseContracts;
    for (ContractDefinition const* contract: bases)
    {
        if (FunctionDefinition const* constructor = contract->constructor())
            for (auto const& modifier: constructor->modifiers())
            {
                auto baseContract = dynamic_cast<ContractDefinition const*>(
                    modifier->name()->annotation().referencedDeclaration);
                if (baseContract)
                    if (m_baseArguments.count(baseContract->constructor()) == 0)
                        m_baseArguments[baseContract->constructor()] = &modifier->arguments();
            }

        for (ASTPointer<InheritanceSpecifier> const& base: contract->baseContracts())
        {
            ContractDefinition const* baseContract = dynamic_cast<ContractDefinition const*>(
                base->name().annotation().referencedDeclaration
            );
            solAssert(baseContract, "");

            if (m_baseArguments.count(baseContract->constructor()) == 0)
                m_baseArguments[baseContract->constructor()] = &base->arguments();
        }
    }
    // Initialization of state variables in base-to-derived order.
    for (ContractDefinition const* contract: boost::adaptors::reverse(bases))
        initializeStateVariables(*contract);

    if (FunctionDefinition const* constructor = _contract.constructor())
        appendConstructor(*constructor);
    else if (auto c = m_context.nextConstructor(_contract))
        appendBaseConstructor(*c);
}

void Compiler::packIntoContractCreator(ContractDefinition const& _contract, CompilerContext const& _runtimeContext)
{
    appendInitAndConstructorCode(_contract);

    eth::AssemblyItem runtimeSub = m_context.addSubroutine(_runtimeContext.assembly());
    solAssert(runtimeSub.data() < numeric_limits<size_t>::max(), "");
    m_runtimeSub = size_t(runtimeSub.data());

    // stack contains sub size
    m_context << Instruction::DUP1 << runtimeSub << u256(0) << Instruction::CODECOPY;
    m_context << u256(0) << Instruction::RETURN;

    // note that we have to include the functions again because of absolute jump labels
    appendFunctionsWithoutCode();
}

void Compiler::appendBaseConstructor(FunctionDefinition const& _constructor)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _constructor);
    FunctionType constructorType(_constructor);
    if (!constructorType.parameterTypes().empty())
    {
        solAssert(m_baseArguments.count(&_constructor), "");
        std::vector<ASTPointer<Expression>> const* arguments = m_baseArguments[&_constructor];
        solAssert(arguments, "");
        for (unsigned i = 0; i < arguments->size(); ++i)
            compileExpression(*(arguments->at(i)), constructorType.parameterTypes()[i]);
    }
    _constructor.accept(*this);
}

void Compiler::appendConstructor(FunctionDefinition const& _constructor)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _constructor);
    // copy constructor arguments from code to memory and then to stack, they are supplied after the actual program
    if (!_constructor.parameters().empty())
    {
        unsigned argumentSize = 0;
        for (ASTPointer<VariableDeclaration> const& var: _constructor.parameters())
            if (var->annotation().type->isDynamicallySized())
            {
                argumentSize = 0;
                break;
            }
            else
                argumentSize += var->annotation().type->calldataEncodedSize();

        CompilerUtils(m_context).fetchFreeMemoryPointer();
        if (argumentSize == 0)
        {
            // argument size is dynamic, use CODESIZE to determine it
            m_context.appendProgramSize(); // program itself
            // CODESIZE is program plus manually added arguments
            m_context << Instruction::CODESIZE << Instruction::SUB;
        }
        else
            m_context << u256(argumentSize);
        // stack: <memptr> <argument size>
        m_context << Instruction::DUP1;
        m_context.appendProgramSize();
        m_context << Instruction::DUP4 << Instruction::CODECOPY;
        m_context << Instruction::DUP2 << Instruction::ADD;
        CompilerUtils(m_context).storeFreeMemoryPointer();
        // stack: <memptr>
        appendCalldataUnpacker(FunctionType(_constructor).parameterTypes(), true);
    }
    _constructor.accept(*this);
}

void Compiler::appendFunctionSelector(ContractDefinition const& _contract)
{
    map<FixedHash<4>, FunctionTypePointer> interfaceFunctions = _contract.interfaceFunctions();
    map<FixedHash<4>, const eth::AssemblyItem> callDataUnpackerEntryPoints;

    FunctionDefinition const* fallback = _contract.fallbackFunction();
    eth::AssemblyItem notFound = m_context.newTag();
    // shortcut messages without data if we have many functions in order to be able to receive
    // ether with constant gas
    if (interfaceFunctions.size() > 5 || fallback)
    {
        m_context << Instruction::CALLDATASIZE << Instruction::ISZERO;
        m_context.appendConditionalJumpTo(notFound);
    }

    // retrieve the function signature hash from the calldata
    if (!interfaceFunctions.empty())
        CompilerUtils(m_context).loadFromMemory(0, IntegerType(CompilerUtils::dataStartOffset * 8), true);

    // stack now is: 1 0 <funhash>
    for (auto const& it: interfaceFunctions)
    {
        callDataUnpackerEntryPoints.insert(std::make_pair(it.first, m_context.newTag()));
        m_context << dupInstruction(1) << u256(FixedHash<4>::Arith(it.first)) << Instruction::EQ;
        m_context.appendConditionalJumpTo(callDataUnpackerEntryPoints.at(it.first));
    }
    m_context.appendJumpTo(notFound);

    m_context << notFound;
    if (fallback)
    {
        eth::AssemblyItem returnTag = m_context.pushNewTag();
        fallback->accept(*this);
        m_context << returnTag;
        appendReturnValuePacker(FunctionType(*fallback).returnParameterTypes(), _contract.isLibrary());
    }
    else if (_contract.isLibrary())
        // Reject invalid library calls and ether sent to a library.
        m_context.appendJumpTo(m_context.errorTag());
    else
        m_context << Instruction::STOP; // function not found

    for (auto const& it: interfaceFunctions)
    {
        FunctionTypePointer const& functionType = it.second;
        solAssert(functionType->hasDeclaration(), "");
        CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, functionType->declaration());
        m_context << callDataUnpackerEntryPoints.at(it.first);
        eth::AssemblyItem returnTag = m_context.pushNewTag();
        m_context << CompilerUtils::dataStartOffset;
        appendCalldataUnpacker(functionType->parameterTypes());
        m_context.appendJumpTo(m_context.functionEntryLabel(functionType->declaration()));
        m_context << returnTag;
        appendReturnValuePacker(functionType->returnParameterTypes(), _contract.isLibrary());
    }
}

void Compiler::appendCalldataUnpacker(TypePointers const& _typeParameters, bool _fromMemory)
{
    // We do not check the calldata size, everything is zero-padded

    //@todo this does not yet support nested dynamic arrays

    // Retain the offset pointer as base_offset, the point from which the data offsets are computed.
    m_context << Instruction::DUP1;
    for (TypePointer const& parameterType: _typeParameters)
    {
        // stack: v1 v2 ... v(k-1) base_offset current_offset
        TypePointer type = parameterType->decodingType();
        if (type->category() == Type::Category::Array)
        {
            auto const& arrayType = dynamic_cast<ArrayType const&>(*type);
            solAssert(!arrayType.baseType()->isDynamicallySized(), "Nested arrays not yet implemented.");
            if (_fromMemory)
            {
                solAssert(
                    arrayType.baseType()->isValueType(),
                    "Nested memory arrays not yet implemented here."
                );
                // @todo If base type is an array or struct, it is still calldata-style encoded, so
                // we would have to convert it like below.
                solAssert(arrayType.location() == DataLocation::Memory, "");
                if (arrayType.isDynamicallySized())
                {
                    // compute data pointer
                    m_context << Instruction::DUP1 << Instruction::MLOAD;
                    m_context << Instruction::DUP3 << Instruction::ADD;
                    m_context << Instruction::SWAP2 << Instruction::SWAP1;
                    m_context << u256(0x20) << Instruction::ADD;
                }
                else
                {
                    m_context << Instruction::DUP1;
                    m_context << u256(arrayType.calldataEncodedSize(true)) << Instruction::ADD;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // first load from calldata and potentially convert to memory if arrayType is memory
                TypePointer calldataType = arrayType.copyForLocation(DataLocation::CallData, false);
                if (calldataType->isDynamicallySized())
                {
                    // put on stack: data_pointer length
                    CompilerUtils(m_context).loadFromMemoryDynamic(IntegerType(256), !_fromMemory);
                    // stack: base_offset data_offset next_pointer
                    m_context << Instruction::SWAP1 << Instruction::DUP3 << Instruction::ADD;
                    // stack: base_offset next_pointer data_pointer
                    // retrieve length
                    CompilerUtils(m_context).loadFromMemoryDynamic(IntegerType(256), !_fromMemory, true);
                    // stack: base_offset next_pointer length data_pointer
                    m_context << Instruction::SWAP2;
                    // stack: base_offset data_pointer length next_pointer
                }
                else
                {
                    // leave the pointer on the stack
                    m_context << Instruction::DUP1;
                    m_context << u256(calldataType->calldataEncodedSize()) << Instruction::ADD;
                }
                if (arrayType.location() == DataLocation::Memory)
                {
                    // stack: base_offset calldata_ref [length] next_calldata
                    // copy to memory
                    // move calldata type up again
                    CompilerUtils(m_context).moveIntoStack(calldataType->sizeOnStack());
                    CompilerUtils(m_context).convertType(*calldataType, arrayType);
                    // fetch next pointer again
                    CompilerUtils(m_context).moveToStackTop(arrayType.sizeOnStack());
                }
                // move base_offset up
                CompilerUtils(m_context).moveToStackTop(1 + arrayType.sizeOnStack());
                m_context << Instruction::SWAP1;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            solAssert(!type->isDynamicallySized(), "Unknown dynamically sized type: " + type->toString());
            CompilerUtils(m_context).loadFromMemoryDynamic(*type, !_fromMemory, true);
            CompilerUtils(m_context).moveToStackTop(1 + type->sizeOnStack());
            m_context << Instruction::SWAP1;
        }
        // stack: v1 v2 ... v(k-1) v(k) base_offset mem_offset
    }
    m_context << Instruction::POP << Instruction::POP;
}

void Compiler::appendReturnValuePacker(TypePointers const& _typeParameters, bool _isLibrary)
{
    CompilerUtils utils(m_context);
    if (_typeParameters.empty())
        m_context << Instruction::STOP;
    else
    {
        utils.fetchFreeMemoryPointer();
        //@todo optimization: if we return a single memory array, there should be enough space before
        // its data to add the needed parts and we avoid a memory copy.
        utils.encodeToMemory(_typeParameters, _typeParameters, true, false, _isLibrary);
        utils.toSizeAfterFreeMemoryPointer();
        m_context << Instruction::RETURN;
    }
}

void Compiler::registerStateVariables(ContractDefinition const& _contract)
{
    for (auto const& var: ContractType(_contract).stateVariables())
        m_context.addStateVariable(*get<0>(var), get<1>(var), get<2>(var));
}

void Compiler::initializeStateVariables(ContractDefinition const& _contract)
{
    for (VariableDeclaration const* variable: _contract.stateVariables())
        if (variable->value() && !variable->isConstant())
            ExpressionCompiler(m_context, m_optimize).appendStateVariableInitialization(*variable);
}

bool Compiler::visit(VariableDeclaration const& _variableDeclaration)
{
    solAssert(_variableDeclaration.isStateVariable(), "Compiler visit to non-state variable declaration.");
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _variableDeclaration);

    m_context.startFunction(_variableDeclaration);
    m_breakTags.clear();
    m_continueTags.clear();

    if (_variableDeclaration.isConstant())
        ExpressionCompiler(m_context, m_optimize).appendConstStateVariableAccessor(_variableDeclaration);
    else
        ExpressionCompiler(m_context, m_optimize).appendStateVariableAccessor(_variableDeclaration);

    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(FunctionDefinition const& _function)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _function);

    m_context.startFunction(_function);

    // stack upon entry: [return address] [arg0] [arg1] ... [argn]
    // reserve additional slots: [retarg0] ... [retargm] [localvar0] ... [localvarp]

    unsigned parametersSize = CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(_function.parameters());
    if (!_function.isConstructor())
        // adding 1 for return address.
        m_context.adjustStackOffset(parametersSize + 1);
    for (ASTPointer<VariableDeclaration const> const& variable: _function.parameters())
    {
        m_context.addVariable(*variable, parametersSize);
        parametersSize -= variable->annotation().type->sizeOnStack();
    }

    for (ASTPointer<VariableDeclaration const> const& variable: _function.returnParameters())
        appendStackVariableInitialisation(*variable);
    for (VariableDeclaration const* localVariable: _function.localVariables())
        appendStackVariableInitialisation(*localVariable);

    if (_function.isConstructor())
        if (auto c = m_context.nextConstructor(dynamic_cast<ContractDefinition const&>(*_function.scope())))
            appendBaseConstructor(*c);

    m_returnTag = m_context.newTag();
    m_breakTags.clear();
    m_continueTags.clear();
    m_stackCleanupForReturn = 0;
    m_currentFunction = &_function;
    m_modifierDepth = 0;

    appendModifierOrFunctionCode();

    m_context << m_returnTag;

    // Now we need to re-shuffle the stack. For this we keep a record of the stack layout
    // that shows the target positions of the elements, where "-1" denotes that this element needs
    // to be removed from the stack.
    // Note that the fact that the return arguments are of increasing index is vital for this
    // algorithm to work.

    unsigned const c_argumentsSize = CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(_function.parameters());
    unsigned const c_returnValuesSize = CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(_function.returnParameters());
    unsigned const c_localVariablesSize = CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(_function.localVariables());

    vector<int> stackLayout;
    stackLayout.push_back(c_returnValuesSize); // target of return address
    stackLayout += vector<int>(c_argumentsSize, -1); // discard all arguments
    for (unsigned i = 0; i < c_returnValuesSize; ++i)
        stackLayout.push_back(i);
    stackLayout += vector<int>(c_localVariablesSize, -1);

    solAssert(stackLayout.size() <= 17, "Stack too deep, try removing local variables.");
    while (stackLayout.back() != int(stackLayout.size() - 1))
        if (stackLayout.back() < 0)
        {
            m_context << Instruction::POP;
            stackLayout.pop_back();
        }
        else
        {
            m_context << swapInstruction(stackLayout.size() - stackLayout.back() - 1);
            swap(stackLayout[stackLayout.back()], stackLayout.back());
        }
    //@todo assert that everything is in place now

    for (ASTPointer<VariableDeclaration const> const& variable: _function.parameters() + _function.returnParameters())
        m_context.removeVariable(*variable);
    for (VariableDeclaration const* localVariable: _function.localVariables())
        m_context.removeVariable(*localVariable);

    m_context.adjustStackOffset(-(int)c_returnValuesSize);

    if (!_function.isConstructor())
        m_context.appendJump(eth::AssemblyItem::JumpType::OutOfFunction);
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(InlineAssembly const& _inlineAssembly)
{
    ErrorList errors;
    assembly::CodeGenerator codeGen(_inlineAssembly.operations(), errors);
    int startStackHeight = m_context.stackHeight();
    m_context.appendInlineAssembly(codeGen.assemble(
        [&](assembly::Identifier const& _identifier, eth::Assembly& _assembly, assembly::CodeGenerator::IdentifierContext _context) {
            auto ref = _inlineAssembly.annotation().externalReferences.find(&_identifier);
            if (ref == _inlineAssembly.annotation().externalReferences.end())
                return false;
            Declaration const* decl = ref->second;
            solAssert(!!decl, "");
            if (_context == assembly::CodeGenerator::IdentifierContext::RValue)
            {
                solAssert(!!decl->type(), "Type of declaration required but not yet determined.");
                if (/*FunctionDefinition const* functionDef = */dynamic_cast<FunctionDefinition const*>(decl))
                {
                    solAssert(false, "Referencing local functions in inline assembly not yet implemented.");
                    // This does not work directly, because the label does not exist in _assembly
                    // (it is a fresh assembly object).
                    // _assembly.append(m_context.virtualFunctionEntryLabel(*functionDef).pushTag());
                }
                else if (auto variable = dynamic_cast<VariableDeclaration const*>(decl))
                {
                    solAssert(!variable->isConstant(), "");
                    if (m_context.isLocalVariable(variable))
                    {
                        int stackDiff = _assembly.deposit() + startStackHeight - m_context.baseStackOffsetOfVariable(*variable);
                        if (stackDiff < 1 || stackDiff > 16)
                            BOOST_THROW_EXCEPTION(
                                CompilerError() <<
                                errinfo_comment("Stack too deep, try removing local variables.")
                            );
                        for (unsigned i = 0; i < variable->type()->sizeOnStack(); ++i)
                            _assembly.append(dupInstruction(stackDiff));
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        solAssert(m_context.isStateVariable(variable), "Invalid variable type.");
                        auto const& location = m_context.storageLocationOfVariable(*variable);
                        if (!variable->type()->isValueType())
                        {
                            solAssert(location.second == 0, "Intra-slot offest assumed to be zero.");
                            _assembly.append(location.first);
                        }
                        else
                        {
                            _assembly.append(location.first);
                            _assembly.append(u256(location.second));
                        }
                    }
                }
                else if (auto contract = dynamic_cast<ContractDefinition const*>(decl))
                {
                    solAssert(contract->isLibrary(), "");
                    _assembly.appendLibraryAddress(contract->name());
                }
                else
                    solAssert(false, "Invalid declaration type.");
            } else {
                // lvalue context
                auto variable = dynamic_cast<VariableDeclaration const*>(decl);
                solAssert(
                    !!variable || !m_context.isLocalVariable(variable),
                    "Can only assign to stack variables in inline assembly."
                );
                unsigned size = variable->type()->sizeOnStack();
                int stackDiff = _assembly.deposit() + startStackHeight - m_context.baseStackOffsetOfVariable(*variable) - size;
                if (stackDiff > 16 || stackDiff < 1)
                    BOOST_THROW_EXCEPTION(
                        CompilerError() <<
                        errinfo_comment("Stack too deep, try removing local variables.")
                    );
                for (unsigned i = 0; i < size; ++i) {
                    _assembly.append(swapInstruction(stackDiff));
                    _assembly.append(Instruction::POP);
                }
            }
            return true;
        }
    ));
    solAssert(errors.empty(), "Code generation for inline assembly with errors requested.");
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(IfStatement const& _ifStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _ifStatement);
    compileExpression(_ifStatement.condition());
    m_context << Instruction::ISZERO;
    eth::AssemblyItem falseTag = m_context.appendConditionalJump();
    eth::AssemblyItem endTag = falseTag;
    _ifStatement.trueStatement().accept(*this);
    if (_ifStatement.falseStatement())
    {
        endTag = m_context.appendJumpToNew();
        m_context << falseTag;
        _ifStatement.falseStatement()->accept(*this);
    }
    m_context << endTag;

    checker.check();
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(WhileStatement const& _whileStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _whileStatement);
    eth::AssemblyItem loopStart = m_context.newTag();
    eth::AssemblyItem loopEnd = m_context.newTag();
    m_continueTags.push_back(loopStart);
    m_breakTags.push_back(loopEnd);

    m_context << loopStart;
    compileExpression(_whileStatement.condition());
    m_context << Instruction::ISZERO;
    m_context.appendConditionalJumpTo(loopEnd);

    _whileStatement.body().accept(*this);

    m_context.appendJumpTo(loopStart);
    m_context << loopEnd;

    m_continueTags.pop_back();
    m_breakTags.pop_back();

    checker.check();
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(ForStatement const& _forStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _forStatement);
    eth::AssemblyItem loopStart = m_context.newTag();
    eth::AssemblyItem loopEnd = m_context.newTag();
    eth::AssemblyItem loopNext = m_context.newTag();
    m_continueTags.push_back(loopNext);
    m_breakTags.push_back(loopEnd);

    if (_forStatement.initializationExpression())
        _forStatement.initializationExpression()->accept(*this);

    m_context << loopStart;

    // if there is no terminating condition in for, default is to always be true
    if (_forStatement.condition())
    {
        compileExpression(*_forStatement.condition());
        m_context << Instruction::ISZERO;
        m_context.appendConditionalJumpTo(loopEnd);
    }

    _forStatement.body().accept(*this);

    m_context << loopNext;

    // for's loop expression if existing
    if (_forStatement.loopExpression())
        _forStatement.loopExpression()->accept(*this);

    m_context.appendJumpTo(loopStart);
    m_context << loopEnd;

    m_continueTags.pop_back();
    m_breakTags.pop_back();

    checker.check();
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(Continue const& _continueStatement)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _continueStatement);
    if (!m_continueTags.empty())
        m_context.appendJumpTo(m_continueTags.back());
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(Break const& _breakStatement)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _breakStatement);
    if (!m_breakTags.empty())
        m_context.appendJumpTo(m_breakTags.back());
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(Return const& _return)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _return);
    if (Expression const* expression = _return.expression())
    {
        solAssert(_return.annotation().functionReturnParameters, "Invalid return parameters pointer.");
        vector<ASTPointer<VariableDeclaration>> const& returnParameters =
            _return.annotation().functionReturnParameters->parameters();
        TypePointers types;
        for (auto const& retVariable: returnParameters)
            types.push_back(retVariable->annotation().type);

        TypePointer expectedType;
        if (expression->annotation().type->category() == Type::Category::Tuple || types.size() != 1)
            expectedType = make_shared<TupleType>(types);
        else
            expectedType = types.front();
        compileExpression(*expression, expectedType);

        for (auto const& retVariable: boost::adaptors::reverse(returnParameters))
            CompilerUtils(m_context).moveToStackVariable(*retVariable);
    }
    for (unsigned i = 0; i < m_stackCleanupForReturn; ++i)
        m_context << Instruction::POP;
    m_context.appendJumpTo(m_returnTag);
    m_context.adjustStackOffset(m_stackCleanupForReturn);
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(Throw const& _throw)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _throw);
    m_context.appendJumpTo(m_context.errorTag());
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(VariableDeclarationStatement const& _variableDeclarationStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _variableDeclarationStatement);
    if (Expression const* expression = _variableDeclarationStatement.initialValue())
    {
        CompilerUtils utils(m_context);
        compileExpression(*expression);
        TypePointers valueTypes;
        if (auto tupleType = dynamic_cast<TupleType const*>(expression->annotation().type.get()))
            valueTypes = tupleType->components();
        else
            valueTypes = TypePointers{expression->annotation().type};
        auto const& assignments = _variableDeclarationStatement.annotation().assignments;
        solAssert(assignments.size() == valueTypes.size(), "");
        for (size_t i = 0; i < assignments.size(); ++i)
        {
            size_t j = assignments.size() - i - 1;
            solAssert(!!valueTypes[j], "");
            VariableDeclaration const* varDecl = assignments[j];
            if (!varDecl)
                utils.popStackElement(*valueTypes[j]);
            else
            {
                utils.convertType(*valueTypes[j], *varDecl->annotation().type);
                utils.moveToStackVariable(*varDecl);
            }
        }
    }
    checker.check();
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(ExpressionStatement const& _expressionStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _expressionStatement);
    Expression const& expression = _expressionStatement.expression();
    compileExpression(expression);
    CompilerUtils(m_context).popStackElement(*expression.annotation().type);
    checker.check();
    return false;
}

bool Compiler::visit(PlaceholderStatement const& _placeholderStatement)
{
    StackHeightChecker checker(m_context);
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, _placeholderStatement);
    ++m_modifierDepth;
    appendModifierOrFunctionCode();
    --m_modifierDepth;
    checker.check();
    return true;
}

void Compiler::appendFunctionsWithoutCode()
{
    set<Declaration const*> functions = m_context.functionsWithoutCode();
    while (!functions.empty())
    {
        for (Declaration const* function: functions)
        {
            m_context.setStackOffset(0);
            function->accept(*this);
        }
        functions = m_context.functionsWithoutCode();
    }
}

void Compiler::appendModifierOrFunctionCode()
{
    solAssert(m_currentFunction, "");
    if (m_modifierDepth >= m_currentFunction->modifiers().size())
        m_currentFunction->body().accept(*this);
    else
    {
        ASTPointer<ModifierInvocation> const& modifierInvocation = m_currentFunction->modifiers()[m_modifierDepth];

        // constructor call should be excluded
        if (dynamic_cast<ContractDefinition const*>(modifierInvocation->name()->annotation().referencedDeclaration))
        {
            ++m_modifierDepth;
            appendModifierOrFunctionCode();
            --m_modifierDepth;
            return;
        }

        ModifierDefinition const& modifier = m_context.functionModifier(modifierInvocation->name()->name());
        CompilerContext::LocationSetter locationSetter(m_context, modifier);
        solAssert(modifier.parameters().size() == modifierInvocation->arguments().size(), "");
        for (unsigned i = 0; i < modifier.parameters().size(); ++i)
        {
            m_context.addVariable(*modifier.parameters()[i]);
            compileExpression(
                *modifierInvocation->arguments()[i],
                modifier.parameters()[i]->annotation().type
            );
        }
        for (VariableDeclaration const* localVariable: modifier.localVariables())
            appendStackVariableInitialisation(*localVariable);

        unsigned const c_stackSurplus = CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(modifier.parameters()) +
                                        CompilerUtils::sizeOnStack(modifier.localVariables());
        m_stackCleanupForReturn += c_stackSurplus;

        modifier.body().accept(*this);

        for (unsigned i = 0; i < c_stackSurplus; ++i)
            m_context << Instruction::POP;
        m_stackCleanupForReturn -= c_stackSurplus;
    }
}

void Compiler::appendStackVariableInitialisation(VariableDeclaration const& _variable)
{
    CompilerContext::LocationSetter location(m_context, _variable);
    m_context.addVariable(_variable);
    CompilerUtils(m_context).pushZeroValue(*_variable.annotation().type);
}

void Compiler::compileExpression(Expression const& _expression, TypePointer const& _targetType)
{
    ExpressionCompiler expressionCompiler(m_context, m_optimize);
    expressionCompiler.compile(_expression);
    if (_targetType)
        CompilerUtils(m_context).convertType(*_expression.annotation().type, *_targetType);
}

eth::Assembly Compiler::cloneRuntime()
{
    eth::Assembly a;
    a << Instruction::CALLDATASIZE;
    a << u256(0) << Instruction::DUP1 << Instruction::CALLDATACOPY;
    //@todo adjust for larger return values, make this dynamic.
    a << u256(0x20) << u256(0) << Instruction::CALLDATASIZE;
    a << u256(0);
    // this is the address which has to be substituted by the linker.
    //@todo implement as special "marker" AssemblyItem.
    a << u256("0xcafecafecafecafecafecafecafecafecafecafe");
    a << u256(eth::GasCosts::callGas + 10) << Instruction::GAS << Instruction::SUB;
    a << Instruction::DELEGATECALL;
    //Propagate error condition (if DELEGATECALL pushes 0 on stack).
    a << Instruction::ISZERO;
    a.appendJumpI(a.errorTag());
    //@todo adjust for larger return values, make this dynamic.
    a << u256(0x20) << u256(0) << Instruction::RETURN;
    return a;
}