1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
|
**************************************
Units and Globally Available Variables
**************************************
.. index:: wei, finney, szabo, ether
Ether Units
===========
A literal number can take a suffix of ``wei``, ``finney``, ``szabo`` or ``ether`` to convert between the subdenominations of Ether, where Ether currency numbers without a postfix are assumed to be Wei, e.g. ``2 ether == 2000 finney`` evaluates to ``true``.
.. index:: time, seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, years
Time Units
==========
Suffixes like ``seconds``, ``minutes``, ``hours``, ``days``, ``weeks`` and
``years`` after literal numbers can be used to convert between units of time where seconds are the base
unit and units are considered naively in the following way:
* ``1 == 1 seconds``
* ``1 minutes == 60 seconds``
* ``1 hours == 60 minutes``
* ``1 days == 24 hours``
* ``1 weeks == 7 days``
* ``1 years == 365 days``
Take care if you perform calendar calculations using these units, because
not every year equals 365 days and not even every day has 24 hours
because of `leap seconds <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second>`_.
Due to the fact that leap seconds cannot be predicted, an exact calendar
library has to be updated by an external oracle.
.. note::
The suffix ``years`` has been deprecated due to the reasons above and cannot be used starting version 0.5.0.
These suffixes cannot be applied to variables. If you want to
interpret some input variable in e.g. days, you can do it in the following way::
function f(uint start, uint daysAfter) public {
if (now >= start + daysAfter * 1 days) {
// ...
}
}
Special Variables and Functions
===============================
There are special variables and functions which always exist in the global
namespace and are mainly used to provide information about the blockchain
or are general-use utility functions.
.. index:: abi, block, coinbase, difficulty, encode, number, block;number, timestamp, block;timestamp, msg, data, gas, sender, value, now, gas price, origin
Block and Transaction Properties
--------------------------------
- ``block.blockhash(uint blockNumber) returns (bytes32)``: hash of the given block - only works for 256 most recent, excluding current, blocks - deprecated in version 0.4.22 and replaced by ``blockhash(uint blockNumber)``.
- ``block.coinbase`` (``address``): current block miner's address
- ``block.difficulty`` (``uint``): current block difficulty
- ``block.gaslimit`` (``uint``): current block gaslimit
- ``block.number`` (``uint``): current block number
- ``block.timestamp`` (``uint``): current block timestamp as seconds since unix epoch
- ``gasleft() returns (uint256)``: remaining gas
- ``msg.data`` (``bytes``): complete calldata
- ``msg.gas`` (``uint``): remaining gas - deprecated in version 0.4.21 and to be replaced by ``gasleft()``
- ``msg.sender`` (``address``): sender of the message (current call)
- ``msg.sig`` (``bytes4``): first four bytes of the calldata (i.e. function identifier)
- ``msg.value`` (``uint``): number of wei sent with the message
- ``now`` (``uint``): current block timestamp (alias for ``block.timestamp``)
- ``tx.gasprice`` (``uint``): gas price of the transaction
- ``tx.origin`` (``address``): sender of the transaction (full call chain)
.. note::
The values of all members of ``msg``, including ``msg.sender`` and
``msg.value`` can change for every **external** function call.
This includes calls to library functions.
.. note::
Do not rely on ``block.timestamp``, ``now`` and ``blockhash`` as a source of randomness,
unless you know what you are doing.
Both the timestamp and the block hash can be influenced by miners to some degree.
Bad actors in the mining community can for example run a casino payout function on a chosen hash
and just retry a different hash if they did not receive any money.
The current block timestamp must be strictly larger than the timestamp of the last block,
but the only guarantee is that it will be somewhere between the timestamps of two
consecutive blocks in the canonical chain.
.. note::
The block hashes are not available for all blocks for scalability reasons.
You can only access the hashes of the most recent 256 blocks, all other
values will be zero.
.. index:: abi, encoding, packed
ABI Encoding Functions
----------------------
- ``abi.encode(...) returns (bytes)``: ABI-encodes the given arguments
- ``abi.encodePacked(...) returns (bytes)``: Performes packed encoding of the given arguments
- ``abi.encodeWithSelector(bytes4 selector, ...) returns (bytes)``: ABI-encodes the given arguments
starting from the second and prepends the given four-byte selector
- ``abi.encodeWithSignature(string signature, ...) returns (bytes)``: Equivalent to ``abi.encodeWithSelector(bytes4(keccak256(signature), ...)```
.. note::
These encoding functions can be used to craft data for function calls without actually
calling a function. Furthermore, ``keccak256(abi.encodePacked(a, b))`` is a more
explicit way to compute ``keccak256(a, b)``, which will be deprecated in future
versions.
See the documentation about the :ref:`ABI <ABI>` and the
:ref:`tightly packed encoding <abi_packed_mode>` for details about the encoding.
.. index:: assert, revert, require
Error Handling
--------------
``assert(bool condition)``:
invalidates the transaction if the condition is not met - to be used for internal errors.
``require(bool condition)``:
reverts if the condition is not met - to be used for errors in inputs or external components.
``require(bool condition, string message)``:
reverts if the condition is not met - to be used for errors in inputs or external components. Also provides an error message.
``revert()``:
abort execution and revert state changes
``revert(string reason)``:
abort execution and revert state changes, providing an explanatory string
.. index:: keccak256, ripemd160, sha256, ecrecover, addmod, mulmod, cryptography,
Mathematical and Cryptographic Functions
----------------------------------------
``addmod(uint x, uint y, uint k) returns (uint)``:
compute ``(x + y) % k`` where the addition is performed with arbitrary precision and does not wrap around at ``2**256``. Assert that ``k != 0`` starting from version 0.5.0.
``mulmod(uint x, uint y, uint k) returns (uint)``:
compute ``(x * y) % k`` where the multiplication is performed with arbitrary precision and does not wrap around at ``2**256``. Assert that ``k != 0`` starting from version 0.5.0.
``keccak256(...) returns (bytes32)``:
compute the Ethereum-SHA-3 (Keccak-256) hash of the :ref:`(tightly packed) arguments <abi_packed_mode>`
``sha256(...) returns (bytes32)``:
compute the SHA-256 hash of the :ref:`(tightly packed) arguments <abi_packed_mode>`
``sha3(...) returns (bytes32)``:
alias to ``keccak256``
``ripemd160(...) returns (bytes20)``:
compute RIPEMD-160 hash of the :ref:`(tightly packed) arguments <abi_packed_mode>`
``ecrecover(bytes32 hash, uint8 v, bytes32 r, bytes32 s) returns (address)``:
recover the address associated with the public key from elliptic curve signature or return zero on error
(`example usage <https://ethereum.stackexchange.com/q/1777/222>`_)
In the above, "tightly packed" means that the arguments are concatenated without padding.
This means that the following are all identical::
keccak256("ab", "c")
keccak256("abc")
keccak256(0x616263)
keccak256(6382179)
keccak256(97, 98, 99)
If padding is needed, explicit type conversions can be used: ``keccak256("\x00\x12")`` is the
same as ``keccak256(uint16(0x12))``.
Note that constants will be packed using the minimum number of bytes required to store them.
This means that, for example, ``keccak256(0) == keccak256(uint8(0))`` and
``keccak256(0x12345678) == keccak256(uint32(0x12345678))``.
It might be that you run into Out-of-Gas for ``sha256``, ``ripemd160`` or ``ecrecover`` on a *private blockchain*. The reason for this is that those are implemented as so-called precompiled contracts and these contracts only really exist after they received the first message (although their contract code is hardcoded). Messages to non-existing contracts are more expensive and thus the execution runs into an Out-of-Gas error. A workaround for this problem is to first send e.g. 1 Wei to each of the contracts before you use them in your actual contracts. This is not an issue on the official or test net.
.. index:: balance, send, transfer, call, callcode, delegatecall
.. _address_related:
Address Related
---------------
``<address>.balance`` (``uint256``):
balance of the :ref:`address` in Wei
``<address>.transfer(uint256 amount)``:
send given amount of Wei to :ref:`address`, throws on failure, forwards 2300 gas stipend, not adjustable
``<address>.send(uint256 amount) returns (bool)``:
send given amount of Wei to :ref:`address`, returns ``false`` on failure, forwards 2300 gas stipend, not adjustable
``<address>.call(...) returns (bool)``:
issue low-level ``CALL``, returns ``false`` on failure, forwards all available gas, adjustable
``<address>.callcode(...) returns (bool)``:
issue low-level ``CALLCODE``, returns ``false`` on failure, forwards all available gas, adjustable
``<address>.delegatecall(...) returns (bool)``:
issue low-level ``DELEGATECALL``, returns ``false`` on failure, forwards all available gas, adjustable
For more information, see the section on :ref:`address`.
.. warning::
There are some dangers in using ``send``: The transfer fails if the call stack depth is at 1024
(this can always be forced by the caller) and it also fails if the recipient runs out of gas. So in order
to make safe Ether transfers, always check the return value of ``send``, use ``transfer`` or even better:
Use a pattern where the recipient withdraws the money.
.. note::
If storage variables are accessed via a low-level delegatecall, the storage layout of the two contracts
must align in order for the called contract to correctly access the storage variables of the calling contract by name.
This is of course not the case if storage pointers are passed as function arguments as in the case for
the high-level libraries.
.. note::
The use of ``callcode`` is discouraged and will be removed in the future.
.. index:: this, selfdestruct
Contract Related
----------------
``this`` (current contract's type):
the current contract, explicitly convertible to :ref:`address`
``selfdestruct(address recipient)``:
destroy the current contract, sending its funds to the given :ref:`address`
``suicide(address recipient)``:
deprecated alias to ``selfdestruct``
Furthermore, all functions of the current contract are callable directly including the current function.
|
